Vēśyā & Dēvadāsī – a study of ancient women profession

Dilip Changkakoty

 Vēśyā & Dēvadāsī – a study of ancient women profession



Śrī śrī Pariharēśvara Temple, Dubi, Assam

(A temple of Dēvadāsī tradition in Assam)


The Sanskrit word "Vēśyā" (वेश्याः) is derived from the root √viś (विश्), which means to enter, pervades, dwell, or settle. The derivation follows this pattern:

  1. Root (धातु): √viś (विश्) – meaning to enter, dwell, settle.
  2. Primary Derived Form: From √viś, we get viśya (विश्य) or veśa (वेश), meaning a dwelling, settlement, or house.
  3. Secondary Derivation:
    • By adding the suffix -yā (य/या), which is a feminine affix used to denote a female associated with a particular action or place, we get "Vēśyā" (वेश्या).
    • The feminine suffix "-yā" is commonly applied to indicate a woman connected with a profession, trade, or activity.

Meaning:

"Vēśyā" (वेश्या) thus originally referred to a woman associated with a veśa (dwelling or settlement). Over time, it came to specifically denote a woman engaged in a public profession, particularly prostitution, since courtesans and dancing women were often associated with particular settlements or establishments.

This word's derivation aligns with similar formations in Sanskrit, where -yā is used as a feminine agent suffix.

 

The Sanskrit word "Dēvadāsī" (देवदासी) is a compound word (समास), derived as follows:

1. Compound Structure (समास-विग्रह):

  • Devá (देव): Derived from the root √div (दिव्), meaning to shine, be divine, play, or rejoice. It refers to a deity or god (देवः).
  • Dāsī (दासी): Derived from dāsa (दास), meaning servant or slave. The feminine suffix "-ī" (ई) is added to make it feminine, forming dāsī (दासी), meaning female servant.

2. Word Formation:

  • Devá + Dāsī = Devadāsī (देवदासी) → A female servant of a deity.

3. Root Analysis:

  • Root of "Devá": √div (दिव्) → meaning to shine, to be divine.
  • Root of "Dāsī": √dāś (दाश्), which means to serve or be devoted.
  • Suffix in "Dāsī": The suffix "-ī" (ई) is a feminine marker applied to dāsa (दास) to indicate a female servant.

 

 The Sanskrit word "Vilāsinī" (विलासिनी) is derived from the root √las (लस्), meaning to shine, play, or be joyful. The derivation follows this structure:

1. Root (धातु) and Primary Formation:

  • The root √las (लस्) means to play, to shine, or to exhibit charm/grace.
  • With the prefix "vi-" (वि-), which adds intensity or special distinction, we get "vilāsa" (विलास), meaning grace, playfulness, charm, or elegance.

2. Feminine Form with Suffix (-inī, ईनी):

  • The suffix "-inī" (ईनी) is a common feminine affix in Sanskrit, often used to denote a female associated with a particular quality or action.
  • Adding "-inī" to vilāsa forms "Vilāsinī" (विलासिनी), meaning a woman full of charm, beauty, or playfulness.

3. Meaning and Usage:

  • "Vilāsinī" refers to a graceful, playful, or charming woman, often used in poetic and classical Sanskrit literature to describe women with beauty and elegance.
  • It can also imply a courtesan, dancer, or woman devoted to the arts in some contexts.

Summary of Derivation:

✔ Root: √las (लस्) → to play, shine, rejoice
✔ Prefix: vi- (वि-) → intensifies meaning
✔ Base Word: vilāsa (विलास) → grace, playfulness, charm
✔ Suffix: "-inī" (ईनी) → feminine agent noun
✔ Final Word: Vilāsinī (विलासिनी) → graceful, charming woman

 

The Sanskrit word "Kulāṭā" (कुलटा) is derived as follows:

1. Root (धातु) and Base Word:

  • The root √kul (कुल्) is associated with family, lineage, or noble descent.
  • The word "kula" (कुल) means family, clan, or noble household.

2. Suffix and Transformation:

  • The suffix "-aṭa" (अट) is commonly used in Sanskrit to denote someone who roams, wanders, or strays from a particular path.
  • Adding "-aṭā" (अटा, feminine form of अट) to kula (कुल) results in "Kulāṭā" (कुलटा), meaning a woman who strays from her noble family or traditional path.

 

3. Meaning and Context:

  • The term "Kulāṭā" is often used in classical Sanskrit literature to describe a woman who deviates from the expected conduct of a noble or respectable family.
  • Over time, it acquired a negative connotation, referring to a promiscuous woman, adulteress, or one who defies social norms.

 

Summary of Derivation:

✔ Root: √kul (कुल्) → family, noble lineage
✔ Base Word: kula (कुल) → clan, household
✔ Suffix: "-aṭā" (अटा) → one who strays, wanders
✔ Final Word: Kulāṭā (कुलटा) → a woman who strays from traditional family norms

 

  •  The Sacred Rituals of the Dēvadāsī: A Divine Offering

 

In the sacred precincts of the Pariharēśbara temple, where the fragrance of incense mingles with the rhythmic chants of hymns, the Dēvadāsī prepares to invoke the presence of Lord Śiva. With deep reverence and unwavering devotion, she raises her hands in a gesture of supplication, her voice resonating with divine longing.

 "O Lord," she proclaims, "I have offered myself to you in the purity of my virginity. You, who are the eternal husband of the universe, shall be my husband too. Never shall I pledge myself to any mortal man, for my soul belongs solely to you." This sacred vow, uttered with profound sincerity, signifies her spiritual union with the divine, marking her complete surrender to the celestial realm.

 As she enters a meditative state, her consciousness transcends the material world, and in her inner vision, she perceives the arrival of Śiva. The very air around her seems to tremble with his divine presence. Moved by an overwhelming sense of devotion, she hastens to prepare a sacred seat for him, arranging it with meticulous care. With folded hands and a heart brimming with adoration, she welcomes the Lord, inviting him to take his rightful place within the temple.

 As the solemn ritual unfolds, she engages in the traditional acts of worship, each gesture infused with meaning. She lights incense, allowing the fragrant smoke to rise like an offering of devotion. With delicate hands, she gathers fresh flowers, their vibrant petals symbolizing the purity of her love. One by one, she offers them at the feet of Lord Śiva, her every action a testament to her unwavering faith.

Beyond the sanctum, in the early hours of dawn, Dēvadāsī, the servants of the gods undertake their ritual ablutions. They descend to the temple pond, the cool waters reflecting the first light of day. With solemn dedication, they cleanse their bodies, anointing themselves with sacred intent. Like cosmetics, they comb the long hair on their heads and it seems to be a symbol of staying away from their worldly desires.

Returning to the temple, they adorn themselves with tilak on their foreheads, marking their spiritual identity. Draped in garments befitting their divine service, they pause before a mirror, not out of vanity, but to ensure that their appearance is perfected for the Lord’s presence. For them, embellishment is not a mere adornment—it is a sacred duty, an exaggeration of form that serves to magnify their devotion.

Thus, in a delicate interplay of ritual, reverence, and divine submission, the Dēvadāsī offers herself in body, mind, and spirit to the Lord. Her dance, her song, and her every gesture become an expression of sacred love, a bridge between the earthly and the celestial, ensuring that the divine essence of Lord Śiva is eternally revered within the temple walls.

 

  • Identifying the Hand Gestures (Mudrās) and Footwork (Pādamandala) in the Dēvadāsī Dance Sequence

The Dēvadāsī dance tradition, deeply rooted in sacred temple rituals, employs a refined system of hand gestures (mudrās), footwork (pādamandala), and body movements (aṅgahāra) to embody devotion and invoke the presence of the divine. Below is a detailed identification of the mudrās and footwork patterns associated with each segment of the ritualistic dance described in text.

1. Invocation and Offering of the Self (Āvāhana & Sankalpa)

Text Reference: “With deep reverence and unwavering devotion, she raises her hands in a gesture of supplication, her voice resonating with divine longing.”

Mudrās (Hand Gestures)

  • Anjali Mudrā (Salutation Gesture) – The Dēvadāsī brings her palms together at the chest (hṛdaya) as a mark of deep devotion.
  • Samputa Mudrā (Cupped Hands Gesture) – Used when expressing offering herself to Lord Śiva, symbolizing the concealment of spiritual knowledge within oneself.
  • Hamsāsya Mudrā (Swan’s Beak Gesture) – Represents delicate expression of love when she declares Lord Śiva as her eternal husband.

Footwork (Pādamandala)

  • Samapāda Sthānam (Standing Posture with Feet Together) – Symbolizes stillness and surrender.
  • Anchita Pāda (Slightly Raised Heel) – Shows humility and offering of self.

2. Preparing a Seat for Lord Śiva (Āsana Sthāpana)

Text Reference: “She hastens to prepare a sacred seat for him, arranging it with meticulous care.”

Mudrās (Hand Gestures)

  • Kartari Mukha Mudrā (Scissors Gesture) – Used when arranging the seat, depicting movement and placement.
  • Ardhachandra Mudrā (Half-Moon Gesture) – Represents careful arrangement and preparation.
  • Patāka Mudrā (Flag Gesture) – Used when welcoming Lord Śiva and symbolizing the act of spreading a seat.

Footwork (Pādamandala)

  • Mandala Pāda (Circular Movements) – Represents ritualistic preparation and consecration of the space.
  • Swastika Pāda (Crossed Feet Movement) – Signifies the sanctification of the seat before Lord Śiva takes his place.

3. Ritual Worship (Pūjā Vidhi)

Text Reference: “She lights incense, allowing the fragrant smoke to rise like an offering of devotion. With delicate hands, she gathers fresh flowers, their vibrant petals symbolizing the purity of her love.”

Mudrās (Hand Gestures)

  • Tripataka Mudrā (Three Parts of a Flag Gesture) – Used when lighting incense and letting the smoke rise.
  • Pushpapuṭa Mudrā (Flower Offering Gesture) – Used when gathering and offering flowers to Lord Śiva.
  • Kapitta Mudrā (Holding a Lamp Gesture) – Depicts the act of offering āratī (sacred flame) to the deity.

Footwork (Pādamandala)

  • Anchita Pāda (Heel Rose slightly Off the Ground) – Represents soft, meditative steps while offering flowers.
  • Pratyālīḍha Pāda (One Leg Extended Slightly Backward) – Used during deep reverence and worship.

4. Ritual Ablutions (Snāna Vidhi) & Adornment

Text Reference: “They descend to the temple pond, the cool waters reflecting the first light of day. With solemn dedication, they cleanse their bodies.”

Mudrās (Hand Gestures)

  • Ardhachandra Mudrā (Half-Moon Gesture) – Used when scooping water to pour over oneself during the ablution ritual.
  • Hamsāsya Mudrā (Swan’s Beak Gesture) – Represents applying tilak to the forehead.
  • Chatura Mudrā (Four-Fingered Gesture) – Symbolizes combing and arranging hair as part of self-purification.

Footwork (Pādamandala)

  • Udghatita Pāda (Heel Raised in Anticipation) – Used when stepping into the temple pond.
  • Agratalāsanchāra Pāda (Sliding the Front of the Foot on the Ground) – Mimics the movement of water over the feet during purification.

5. The Final Offering: Dance as Divine Submission

Text Reference: “Her dance, her song, and her every gesture become an expression of sacred love, a bridge between the earthly and the celestial.”

Mudrās (Hand Gestures)

  • Kataka-Mukha Mudrā (Bracelet Gesture) – Represents delicate movements of fingers while dancing in devotion.
  • Alapadma Mudrā (Fully Bloomed Lotus Gesture) – Used to express spiritual blossoming and offering the self to Śiva.
  • Mayura Mudrā (Peacock Gesture) – Symbolizes grace and divine beauty in her movements.

Footwork (Pādamandala)

  • Bhramari Pāda (Circular Whirl Movements) – Used in devotional dance sequences to invoke divine ecstasy.
  • Ekapāda Sthānam (Standing on One Foot) – Symbolizes spiritual elevation and transcendence.

Conclusion: The Dēvadāsī’s Sacred Language of Gestures and Movements

The Dēvadāsī tradition transforms the act of worship into a living, moving prayer, where every gesture (mudrā) and foot movement (pādamandala) is an offering to the divine. The non-verbal storytelling through Bharatanatyam, Odissi, and Kuchipudi embodies the essence of devotion, love, and surrender to Lord Śiva.

 

  •  Division of vēśyā:

In the Gupta Sādhana Tantra, Sadāśiva proclaimed:

Ēbmviddhā Bhabētvēśyā, na vēśyā Kulațā priyē.  

Kulațāsmgamādēvi!   raurabṃ narakṃ brajēt. 

 

"O beloved, one who is consecrated in this manner shall be recognized as a Vēśyā, but not as a Kulāṭā. O Devi! One who engages in union with a Kulāṭā shall surely descend into the torments of Raurava, the dreadful hell."

In this passage, Sadāśiva makes a clear distinction between the Vēśyā and the Kulāṭā. The term Vēśyā, as described in Tantric traditions, refers to a sacredly anointed practitioner, one who has undergone full spiritual consecration and embodies divine energy. In contrast, Kulāṭā is used to denote a woman who has strayed from the sacred order and fallen into moral transgression.

The warning in the latter half of the verse underscores the consequences of engaging with a Kulāṭā, equating such an act with a severe spiritual downfall. The reference to Raurava Naraka, one of the most fearsome hells in Hindu cosmology, signifies the grave repercussions of deviating from the path of divine sanctity and engaging in acts deemed spiritually corrupt.

This verse, therefore, reinforces the idea that a Vēśyā is not to be confused with a woman of moral indiscretion; rather, she is a spiritually empowered figure, honored and elevated within esoteric traditions.

A fully consecrated and anointed practitioner is referred to as a Vēśyā. It is important to note that the term Vēśyā does not correspond to the modern notion of an adulterous; rather, it signifies a spiritually empowered individual who embodies the sacred essence of consecration. The very designation of a Vēśyā arises from the belief that she is enveloped by the presence of a covering deity, whose divine power is infused within her through the rites of full sanctification.

Within the esoteric traditions of Tantric practice, the Vēśyās are classified into seven distinct types, each signifying a unique level of spiritual attainment and function. These categories are:

  1. Gupta-Vēśyā (गुप्त-वेश्या) – The secret or hidden practitioner, whose spiritual work remains veiled from the world.
  2. Mahā-Vēśyā (महावेश्या) – The great or supreme practitioner, endowed with profound esoteric knowledge and power.
  3. Kula-Vēśyā (कुल-वेश्या) – The practitioner associated with the Kula tradition, deeply integrated into familial and lineage-based Tantric practices.
  4. Rāja-Vēśyā (राज-वेश्या) – The royal practitioner, often linked to sovereign or aristocratic patronage, embodying both material and spiritual influence.
  5. Dēva-Vēśyā (देव-वेश्या) – The divine practitioner, one who serves the deities directly through ritualistic devotion and sacred service.
  6. Brahma-Vēśyā (ब्रह्म-वेश्या) – The practitioner associated with Brahmanic wisdom, embodying the highest philosophical and metaphysical knowledge.
  7. Sarbba-Vēśyā (सर्व-वेश्या) – The universal practitioner, transcending all categories and embracing the totality of the spiritual path.

These classifications are explicitly detailed in the Gupta Sādhana Tantra and the Niruttara-Tantra, two authoritative texts that provide deeper insights into the roles and functions of Vēśyās within Tantric traditions. Far from being a term of social stigma, Vēśyā is a title that denotes spiritual initiation, divine embodiment, and the sacred empowerment granted through consecration.


  • Deatils of Anurāga:

Anurāgasyāvacanam .. 24/6/2 – Anurāgasyēti jātarāgāsmi kāmayasya sāmiti na vācyam

Ākāratastu darśayēt .. 25/6/2 -  Ākārata iti / yatha jānāti kāmāturēti

 

This passage presents an insightful discourse on the expression of emotions and desire in the context of Anurāga (deep affection or love). The interpretation draws upon the nuances of speech, gesture, and implicit communication as prescribed in classical texts.

Translation and Elaboration:

Verse 24/6/2: Anurāgasyāvacanam

"Anurāga is not to be verbally expressed as 'I am overtaken by passion' or 'I am consumed by desire.' Instead, it must be conveyed subtly through form and demeanor."

This verse emphasizes the refined and non-verbal articulation of deep affection or desire. In traditional Indian aesthetics and dramaturgy, particularly within Nāṭyaśāstra and Rasa theory, emotions are not meant to be explicitly declared in speech but rather suggested through expressive means such as facial expressions, bodily movements, and nuanced gestures (known as bhāvas). The underlying principle is that true Anurāga (deep love and devotion) is not about direct proclamation but about an inherent, unmistakable presence that reveals itself through one’s demeanor.

Verse 25/6/2: Ākāratastu darśayēt

"Desire is to be demonstrated through outward expressions, for just as one recognizes a person afflicted by passion, so too can one discern true emotion through form and behavior."

This verse reinforces the previous idea by stating that love and desire are best communicated through one's outward expressions rather than direct statements. It draws an analogy: just as one can recognize a kāmātura (a person overwhelmed by desire) through their appearance, mannerisms, and subtle cues, so too should the depth of Anurāga be made apparent through expressive embodiment rather than mere words.

Scholarly Interpretation:

In classical Sanskrit poetics and performing arts, particularly in the Nāṭyaśāstra, emotions (rasa) are categorized and expressed through carefully curated gestures, eye movements, posture, and subtle bodily indications. This passage underscores the principle of suggestion (dhvani), which is a key aesthetic doctrine in Sanskrit literature, especially in the Alankāraśāstra of Ānandavardhana. The evocative power of indirect expression is considered superior to blatant declarations, as it engages the observer's perception and interpretation, thereby heightening emotional and artistic depth.

Conclusion:

These verses beautifully articulate the philosophy of implicit expression in the realm of love and devotion. Whether in human relationships, sacred rituals, or artistic performances, the most profound emotions are not spoken outright but are revealed through an individual’s presence, gestures, and subtle signs.

 

  • Extended Analysis: Anurāga, Rasa Theory, and Nāṭyaśāstra

The two verses you provided align deeply with Indian aesthetic theory, particularly as elaborated in the Nāṭyaśāstra (attributed to Bharata) and later developed by thinkers like Ānandavardhana (Dhvani theory) and Abhinavagupta (Rasa theory). The essence of these verses lies in the power of suggestion (dhvani) and the philosophy that emotions—especially love (Anurāga)—should be experienced rather than explicitly stated.

1. The Concept of Anurāga and its Expression

The term Anurāga is often translated as deep affection, devotion, or passionate love. However, in the context of Sanskrit poetics and aesthetics, it is more than a mere emotion; it is a transcendental experience that is best conveyed through subtlety and refinement.

The first verse (24/6/2) rejects direct verbal expression of desire:

"Anurāga is not to be explicitly declared as ‘I am overtaken by passion’ or ‘I am consumed by desire.’ Instead, it must be conveyed subtly through form and demeanor."

This reflects the idea that love and devotion are not merely verbal statements, but a state of being that naturally manifests in the expressions and behavior of the one experiencing it.

This aligns with classical Sanskrit dramaturgy, where emotions (bhāvas) are transformed into rasa (the aesthetic experience). The highest form of love (śṛṅgāra-rasa) is not merely physical attraction but a spiritually elevated experience, often linked to Bhakti (devotion).

2. Suggestion (Dhvani) as the Highest Mode of Expression

The second verse (25/6/2) states:

"Desire is to be demonstrated through outward expressions, for just as one recognizes a person afflicted by passion, so too can one discern true emotion through form and behavior."

This follows the principle of dhvani (suggestion), which is central to Sanskrit poetics (Alaṅkāraśāstra). Ānandavardhana, in his Dhvanyāloka, argues that true poetic beauty lies not in direct expression (abhidhā) but in suggestion (vyañjanā). According to him, emotions—especially those related to love—are most effective when they are felt rather than stated.

For instance, in classical Sanskrit poetry, a poet would never write:

"She is deeply in love."

Instead, the poet would evoke the sentiment through imagery and subtle hints:

"Her gaze follows him as the moon follows the tide, drawn yet distant."

By not directly stating the emotion but allowing the reader to infer it, the impact is much greater.

3. Application in Nāṭyaśāstra: Bhāva and Rasa

The Nāṭyaśāstra (the foundational text on drama and performance) divides expressions of emotions into bhāvas (internal states) and rasas (aesthetic experiences). According to Bharata, the success of an actor or dancer lies in their ability to evoke rasa through subtlety, not exaggeration or direct speech.

In the context of the Dēvadāsī tradition (where dance and devotion intertwine), a dancer would not directly declare her love or devotion to Lord Śiva. Instead, she would:

  • Use delicate eye movements (drishti-bheda) to convey longing.
  • Employ hand gestures (mudrās) that suggest submission or devotion.
  • Allow posture and movement (angika abhinaya) to depict internal emotions externally.

This aligns with the idea in your verses, where physical expressions reveal deep emotions more effectively than words.

4. The Parallel in Rasa Theory: The Evocation of Śṛṅgāra and Bhakti

The verses you provided relate closely to the Śṛṅgāra Rasa (the rasa of love and beauty), which has two forms:

  1. Sambhoga Śṛṅgāra – Love in union (expressed in joyful presence).
  2. Vipralambha Śṛṅgāra – Love in separation (expressed through longing and anticipation).

However, in the context of devotion (bhakti), this śṛṅgāra rasa transforms into madhura bhakti—the spiritual love for the divine. In Bhakti traditions, particularly in Vaishnavism and Shaivism, love for the divine is often expressed through:

  • Silent gestures of longing.
  • Symbolic offerings instead of words.
  • Ritual acts that convey deep devotion non-verbally.

For example, in Krishna Bhakti, Rādhā does not need to say she loves Krishna. Her expressions, hesitation, and longing gazes are enough to make her love palpable to the observer. Similarly, the Dēvadāsī, as a sacred performer, conveys her devotion not through words but through the grace of her movements, the depth of her expressions, and the subtlety of her abhinaya (acting techniques).

5. Conclusion: The Power of the Unspoken

The essence of these verses lies in the refinement of expression—whether in poetry, dance, or devotion, the most profound emotions are those that do not need to be spoken outright. This concept is central to:

  • Sanskrit poetics (Dhvani theory).
  • Nāṭyaśāstra’s approach to bhāva and rasa.
  • Bhakti traditions, where love for the divine is more powerful when subtly expressed.

Thus, these verses embody the highest aesthetic and spiritual philosophy—that the deepest love and devotion are most beautifully expressed in silence, through the language of the body and soul, rather than mere words.

Further Analysis in the Context of Nāṭyaśāstra, Rasa Theory, and Sanskrit Poetics

The verses Anurāgasyāvacanam (24/6/2) and Ākāratastu darśayēt (25/6/2) align closely with classical Indian aesthetics, particularly the Nāṭyaśāstra, the Rasa theory, and the Dhvani (suggestion) principle of Sanskrit poetics. Below is a detailed analysis within these frameworks:

1. Nāṭyaśāstra and the Theory of Expressing Emotions (Bhāva and Rasa)

The Nāṭyaśāstra, attributed to Bharata Muni, is the foundational text on Indian dramaturgy, dance, and performance. It emphasizes that emotions (bhāvas) should not be merely stated but rather enacted and evoked through artistic expression.

  • The verse "Anurāga is not to be verbally expressed but conveyed subtly" follows this principle. In traditional Indian performance, a character does not say outright that they are in love or suffering from desire. Instead, the actor/dancer demonstrates it through bodily gestures, facial expressions, and mood-setting elements (abhinaya).
  • In Sanskrit drama, the sāttvika bhāvas (involuntary emotional responses like blushing, trembling, tears, and sighs) play a crucial role in making an emotion appear natural and profound. Love (śṛṅgāra rasa), for instance, is best conveyed through glances, subtle smiles, graceful body movements, and expressive eye play (netrabhinaya).

This aligns with Bharata’s injunction in the Nāṭyaśāstra that acting should be suggestive rather than overtly declarative, enhancing the audience's emotional experience.

2. Rasa Theory: Creating Aesthetic Delight

The Rasa theory, further developed by Ānandavardhana (Dhvanyāloka) and Abhinavagupta (Locana Commentary), describes how emotions are transformed into aesthetic experiences (rasa) for the audience.

  • Anurāga (deep love and devotion) is associated with Śṛṅgāra Rasa (the aesthetic emotion of love). However, its depiction in classical poetry and drama does not involve direct speech but rather relies on the interplay of vibhāva (determinants, such as setting, characters), anubhāva (external expressions), and vyabhicārī bhāvas (transitory emotional states, like longing and hesitation).
  • In Dhvani School of poetics, suggestion (dhvani) is superior to explicit meaning (vācya). Anurāga cannot be fully captured by words alone; rather, its essence must be suggested through carefully crafted poetic imagery or dramatic expressions. This is why Bharata and later theorists recommend that love, devotion, or desire be shown rather than spoken.

The analogy in 25/6/2, which states that just as one recognizes a desire-stricken person (kāmātura) through their appearance and behavior, so too must love be expressed through form and gesture, aligns perfectly with Abhinavagupta’s interpretation of rasa realization—where the audience perceives and experiences the rasa through subtle suggestion rather than direct description.

3. Dhvani (The Principle of Suggestion) in Sanskrit Poetics

The Dhvanyāloka (9th century CE) of Ānandavardhana introduced the idea that the most powerful literary and artistic expressions are those that suggest rather than state explicitly. This concept is known as dhvani (suggestion), the soul of poetry.

  • In this framework, love (anurāga) should not be declared with statements like "I am deeply in love" or "I am overwhelmed by passion." Instead, it should be hinted at through descriptive metaphors, emotions reflected in nature, the lover’s actions, gestures, and changing moods.
  • For instance, a poet would not say "She is in love," but might describe her restless sighs, the way she nervously plays with her ornaments, or how her eyes seek yet avoid her beloved’s gaze.
  • Similarly, in drama, a character overwhelmed by love should not say it outright but should be shown fidgeting, blushing, stealing glances, or adjusting her attire in nervous anticipation.

Thus, the verses 24/6/2 and 25/6/2 align with the Dhvani School, emphasizing that true emotions are revealed through refined suggestion rather than direct verbalization.

4. Psychological Insight: Recognition of Passion (Kāmātura)

The phrase "just as one recognizes a person afflicted by passion" (kāmātura) suggests an observational, psychological approach to emotion. In ancient Sanskrit dramaturgy and poetics, characters who are deeply affected by desire or longing exhibit distinct symptoms, such as:

  • Restlessness
  • Sudden sighs and deep breathing
  • Averting or locking eyes with the beloved
  • Absentminded gestures, fidgeting with ornaments or clothing
  • A flushed face, trembling lips, and hesitant speech

This psychological realism in Indian literature and theatre shows an advanced understanding of human emotions and their external manifestations, which closely aligns with modern psychological studies of nonverbal communication and emotional expression.

Conclusion: The Power of Subtle Expression

These verses reflect a fundamental aesthetic principle in Nāṭyaśāstra, Rasa theory, and Sanskrit poetics:

  • True emotions are best conveyed through gestures, expressions, and subtle cues rather than explicit speech.
  • Anurāga (deep love) and kāma (desire) must be suggested through external form and behavior (ākāra) rather than verbal articulation.
  • This aligns with Bharata’s Nāṭyaśāstra, the Dhvani theory of Ānandavardhana, and Abhinavagupta’s commentary on Rasa, all of which emphasize the supreme power of suggestion (dhvani) over direct expression.

Thus, whether in poetry, drama, dance, or even daily human interactions, the most profound emotions are not declared but delicately revealed, allowing the observer to experience them rather than merely hear them.

 

  • Illustrations of Subtle Expression (Dhvani) in Sanskrit Poetry and Drama

To further illuminate the principle of suggestive expression (dhvani) over explicit declaration, let's examine some classic examples from Sanskrit poetry and drama, particularly from Kālidāsa, Bhavabhūti, and Jayadeva, who masterfully applied this aesthetic principle in their works.

1. Kālidāsa’s Abhijñānaśākuntalam: Love Expressed Without Words

One of the most celebrated instances of unspoken love occurs in Kālidāsa’s Abhijñānaśākuntalam (The Recognition of Śakuntalā). When King Duṣyanta first sees Śakuntalā, he does not declare his attraction outright; instead, Kālidāsa lets the king’s emotions unfold through his silent admiration and body language:

कः पुनर् अनया स्पर्धते?
Kaḥ punar anayā spardhate?
(Who indeed can rival her beauty?)

Duṣyanta does not state directly that he is captivated. Instead, Kālidāsa uses elliptical speech and rhetorical questioning, allowing the audience to perceive the king’s admiration without him stating it explicitly.

Further, Śakuntalā, too, does not verbally express her growing love. Instead, her emotions are revealed through her nervous gestures:

  • She lowers her gaze when the king looks at her.
  • She absentmindedly plucks petals from a flower.
  • She adjusts her ornaments, revealing her restlessness.

These subtle, external indicators align with the idea in the verses you quoted—one recognizes deep love (anurāga) not through speech but through body language and mannerisms (ākāra).

2. Bhavabhūti’s Uttararāmacarita: Sītā’s Silent Suffering

In Bhavabhūti’s Uttararāmacarita (The Later Deeds of Rāma), Sītā does not explicitly complain or lament when she is abandoned by Rāma. Instead, her pain is revealed through silence, glances, and restrained emotions:

नेत्रे जलं गौरवम् उत्कण्ठितं च
Netre jalaṁ gauravam utkaṇṭhitaṁ ca
(Her eyes filled with heavy tears, yet she remained silent, longing and patient.)

Here, Bhavabhūti follows the same principle:

  • Sītā does not say outright that she is heartbroken.
  • Her tears, heavy silence, and longing gazes speak louder than words.

This matches Ānandavardhana’s dhvani principle, which states that the most powerful emotions are those that remain unstated but deeply felt by the audience.

3. Jayadeva’s Gīta Govinda: Rādhā’s Unspoken Passion

Jayadeva’s Gīta Govinda is one of the finest poetic compositions where desire (kāma) and devotion (bhakti) are conveyed through suggestion rather than direct speech.

When Rādhā is longing for Krishna but hesitant to approach him, her feelings are not stated outright but expressed through her actions:

पदविकसिद्रुतकमला भृङ्गाङ्गनक्लान्तकन्धरा
Padavikasidrutakamalā bhṛṅgāṅganaklāntakandharā
(She stood motionless like a lotus trembling before a hovering bee, her neck bent in gentle exhaustion.)

Instead of saying “Rādhā desires Krishna,” Jayadeva uses an extended metaphor—Rādhā is the lotus and Krishna is the bee hovering near her, capturing her emotions without explicit declaration.

This aligns perfectly with the verses 24/6/2 and 25/6/2, which state that one does not say “I am overtaken by passion” but instead reveals it through form and demeanor.

Key Takeaways from These Examples:

1.       Love and desire are best conveyed through suggestion (dhvani), not direct statements.

    • Example: Rādhā’s emotions in Gīta Govinda are never plainly stated; instead, they are symbolized through nature.

2.       Body language and gestures (ākāra) reveal emotions more powerfully than words.

    • Example: Śakuntalā’s downcast eyes and nervous plucking of petals reveal her love without speech.

3.       Silence, hesitation, and indirect expressions heighten emotional depth.

    • Example: Sītā’s heavy silence in Uttararāmacarita speaks more than any lament.

4.       Metaphors, analogies, and symbols evoke deeper emotions.

    • Example: The bee and lotus metaphor in Gīta Govinda subtly conveys unspoken passion.

  • Final Reflection: Why This Matters in Sanskrit Aesthetics

The principle found in your quoted verses—that emotions should be conveyed through subtle expression rather than direct verbalization—is deeply embedded in Indian aesthetics, influencing poetry, drama, dance, and even devotional practices.

  • In Bharatanatyam, Odissi, and other classical dances, mudrās (hand gestures) and abhinaya (expressions) replace spoken words.
  • In devotional traditions (bhakti rasa), saints like Mīrābāī and Chaitanya emphasize love for the divine through song and movement rather than direct theological statements.

Thus, your quoted Sanskrit passage beautifully aligns with the highest principles of Indian aesthetics, where true emotions are not spoken but experienced through refined expressions, poetic imagery, and evocative gestures.

Expressing Emotions through Subtlety in Classical Indian Dance

The principle outlined in your quoted Sanskrit verses—that emotions (anurāga) are not to be directly stated but rather expressed through bodily gestures and demeanor (ākāra)—is foundational to Indian classical dance traditions, particularly Bharatanatyam and Odissi.

These dance forms, deeply rooted in the Nāṭyaśāstra and devotional traditions, emphasize the use of abhinaya (expressive storytelling) to communicate emotions subtly, just as Sanskrit poets and dramatists like Kālidāsa and Jayadeva did in their works.

1. The Four Types of Abhinaya (Expression) in Dance

Bharatanatyam and Odissi use abhinaya (expressive techniques) to convey emotions, mirroring the dhvani (suggestion) principle in Sanskrit poetry. The four types of abhinaya are:

(i) Āṅgika Abhinaya (Physical Expression through Gestures and Movements)

  • This corresponds to the idea in ākāratastu darśayēt (one must show emotions through form and demeanor).
  • Example: A dancer does not say, “I am in love,” but shows it through glances, tilting of the head, and delicate hand movements.
  • In Bharatanatyam, the Sṛṅgāra rasa (romantic sentiment) is shown with subtle side glances, shy smiles, and playful hand gestures—rather than direct verbalization.

(ii) Vācika Abhinaya (Expression through Song and Verse Recitation)

  • This corresponds to anurāgasyeti jātarāgāsmi kāmayasya sāmiti na vācyam (one must not state emotions explicitly).
  • Example: In a Padam (a lyrical love song in Bharatanatyam), a Nāyikā (heroine) longing for Krishna does not say, “I miss him.”
    • Instead, she sings indirectly about the cool moonlight intensifying her pain—a poetic way of suggesting her emotions.

(iii) Āhārya Abhinaya (Costumes, Ornaments, and Makeup as Expression)

  • Example: In Odissi, when a dancer portrays Rādhā longing for Krishna, she wears delicate jewelry and a soft-colored costume, reflecting her emotional state through visual elements rather than words.

(iv) Sāttvika Abhinaya (Inner Emotional Expression, Natural Reactions)

  • This is the purest form of subtlety—a dancer’s body language, trembling hands, a sigh, or teary eyes reveal deep emotions without explicit dialogue.
  • Example: In the Gīta Govinda, when Rādhā is separated from Krishna, her trembling lips and slow movements convey pain far more deeply than spoken words.

2. Example: Bharatanatyam’s Interpretation of Rādhā’s Love (Sṛṅgāra Rasa)

In a Bharatanatyam performance of Gīta Govinda, a dancer portraying Rādhā does not say, “Krishna, I long for you.” Instead, she expresses this through:

  • Glances (drishti-bheda) shifting from side to side in hesitation.
  • Hand gestures (mudrās) symbolizing a heart full of longing.
  • Slow, lingering movements to indicate emotional weight.
  • A tearful yet smiling expression, as if reliving past joys while experiencing present sorrow.

The audience feels her love and pain without a single word being spoken—exactly in line with the dhvani principle of Sanskrit aesthetics.

3. Odissi’s Bhakti Rasa and the Principle of Subtle Expression

Odissi, a classical dance form deeply tied to the Jagannātha tradition, also embodies the idea that emotions should not be declared but evoked through subtlety.

Example: Expressing Devotion in Odissi

In an Abhinaya piece on Jayadeva’s Gīta Govinda, an Odissi dancer portraying a devotee does not say, “O Lord, I surrender to you.” Instead, she:

  • Raises her hands in slow, delicate movements as if offering flowers to Krishna.
  • Her eyes lower in humility before lifting up in longing.
  • Her feet move softly, as if approaching the deity but hesitating in awe.

This captures the essence of bhakti (devotion) not through direct speech but through nuanced bodily expressions; aligning with the idea in ākāratastu darśayēt (let emotions be shown through demeanor).

4. Connection to the Nāṭyaśāstra and Rasa Theory

The Nāṭyaśāstra, the foundational text on Indian performing arts, states that true artistic expression (rasa) arises not from direct statements but from suggestion (vyañjanā) and aesthetic experience (rasa-nubhava).

  • In poetry: This is done through metaphor, symbolism, and implied meanings.
  • In dance: This is done through gestures, facial expressions, and movement.

Thus, the verses Anurāgasyeti jātarāgāsmi kāmayasya sāmiti na vācyam align perfectly with the Nāṭyaśāstra’s view that:

Emotions should not be explicitly declared but rather evoked through expressive means.

Conclusion: The Universal Beauty of Unspoken Expression

The idea in your Sanskrit verses—that love and longing should be revealed through demeanor, not speech—is one of the most powerful principles in Indian aesthetics.

  • In Bharatanatyam and Odissi, this is seen in delicate gestures, fleeting glances, and poetic movements that suggest emotions rather than state them outright.
  • In Sanskrit poetry, this is seen in metaphors, analogies, and suggestive language rather than direct statements.
  • In devotional traditions, bhakti rasa is not about loud declarations but silent, internal surrender.

This principle of suggestion (dhvani) over explicit declaration is what gives Indian classical arts their profound depth, making the experience of love, devotion, and longing timeless and universally resonant.

 

  • Nāyikā-Bheda and Mudrās in Classical Dance: Aligning with the Principle of Subtle Expression

In the context of your quoted Sanskrit verses—which emphasize the idea that emotions should not be explicitly stated but subtly expressed through demeanor (ākāra)—we can explore how this principle is embodied in Nāyikā-bheda (classifications of heroines) and Mudrās (hand gestures) in Indian classical dance like Bharatanatyam and Odissi.

1. Nāyikā-Bheda: The Eight Types of Heroines and Subtle Expression

The concept of Nāyikā-bheda (heroine classifications) comes from Bharata’s Nāṭyaśāstra and is further elaborated in later texts like Śṛṅgāra-Tilaka and Rasa-mañjarī. These classifications reflect different emotional states (bhāvas) and are never directly stated but are subtly conveyed through gestures, expressions, and postures—aligning with the principle in your Sanskrit verses.

(i) Vasakasajjā Nāyikā (The One Preparing to Meet Her Lover)

  • She anticipates union but does not declare her excitement openly.
  • Her subtle expressions include:
    • Glancing at the mirror while adorning her.
    • Gently touching her ornaments in anticipation.
    • Using the Alapadma Mudrā (open lotus hand gesture) to adjust her jewelry or veil—symbolizing readiness.

➡ In Bharatanatyam: The dancer slowly moves her fingers around her bangles, indicating preparation for her beloved.

➡ In Odissi: She applies kajal (kohl) using Patāka Mudrā (flat palm gesture) while looking sideways.

These gestures imply longing and excitement without explicitly stating it.

(ii) Virahotkaṇṭhitā Nāyikā (The One Distressed by Separation)

  • She longs for her absent beloved but does not verbalize her sorrow directly.
  • She expresses pain through:
    • Lowered gaze and trembling hands.
    • Sighing subtly with a soft head tilt.
    • Using the Chatura Mudrā (four-fingered gesture) to recall past moments of love.

➡ In Bharatanatyam: The dancer holds a flower delicately, and then lets it slip from her hand—symbolizing fading hope.

➡ In Odissi: She places her fingers on her forehead, and then gently moves her hand downward—indicating her deep sigh.

This conveys longing without explicitly saying, “I miss you.”

(iii) Svādhīna-Bhartṛkā Nāyikā (The One Who Has Her Lover under Her Control)

  • She knows her beloved is devoted to her and subtly asserts her dominance.
  • Instead of stating this, she expresses confidence through:
    • Slightly raised eyebrows.
    • A proud yet affectionate smile.
    • Tripataka Mudrā (three-fingered gesture) to symbolically “command” her lover playfully.

➡ In Bharatanatyam: The dancer may tilt her head with a soft smile, symbolizing quiet satisfaction.
➡ In Odissi: She gracefully places her hands on her waist and gives a sideways glance—a silent assertion of control.

This aligns with the idea that emotions are not declared but suggested through expressions and movements.

2. Mudrās (Hand Gestures) and Their Role in Subtle Expression

(i) Katakā-Mukha Mudrā (Bracelet Hand Gesture)

  • Used to depict offering flowers or adorning oneself, often seen in Vasakasajjā Nāyikā.
  • Suggests preparation for love, not by words, but by action.

(ii) Hamsāsya Mudrā (Swan’s Beak Gesture)

  • Represents delicate emotions, like caressing an object of affection.
  • Used when the Nāyikā recalls the touch of her beloved—without explicitly saying so.

(iii) Alapadma Mudrā (Full-Bloom Lotus)

  • Represents beauty, grace, and longing.
  • Often used when a heroine looks at the moon and remembers her lover, without directly stating her pain.

3. Connection to Your Sanskrit Verses: “Let Emotions Be Shown Through Demeanor”

The Sanskrit verses Anurāgasyeti jātarāgāsmi kāmayasya sāmiti na vācyam / Ākāratastu darśayēt directly relate to these dance techniques:

  • Nāyikās never declare their emotions outright.
  • Instead, their emotions unfold subtly through mudrās, glances, and movements.
  • Dance transforms poetry into visual expression, embodying the very essence of Sanskrit aesthetics.

Final Reflection: The Timeless Beauty of Suggestion in Classical Arts

The concept expressed in your Sanskrit verses is the foundation of Indian artistic traditions—from poetry to dance to sculpture.

  • In Sanskrit poetry, love is shown through metaphors, not direct statements.
  • In classical dance, emotions are expressed through gestures, not spoken words.
  • In devotional traditions, bhakti is not about loud proclamations, but silent, internal surrender.

Thus, the principle “do not state, but suggest” (dhvani) runs through every facet of Indian classical aesthetics, making the experience of love, devotion, and longing universal, timeless, and deeply evocative.

 

  •  Division vēśyā as per Kāmasutram:

Kumbhadāsī paricārikā kulațā svairiṇī națī śilpakārikā prakāśsvinaṣțā rūpājīvā gaṇikā cēti vēśyāviśēṣā.. 50.6.6.. Kāmasutram

Kumbhadāsīti Kumbhagrahaṇaṃ nikrṣțkarmopalaļṇam. Lokē sāmānyāstryaḥ prasiddhāḥ. Kumbhadāsī gaṇikā rūpājīvā cēti. Śēṣāṇamapi sāmānyātvāttatraivāntabhārvaḥ. Paricārikā yāḥ svāminaṃ paricaranti. Tasvā aupaniṣadikē vidhi vaļyati. Kulațā yā patibhayādgŗhāntaraṃ gatvā pracchannamanyēna saṃprayujyatē. Svairiṇī yā pati tiraskŗtya svagŗhēsnyagŗhē vā saṃprayujyatē. Națī raṅgayoṣit. Śilpakārikā rajakatantuvāyādibhāryā. Prakāśsvinaṣțā yā jīvati mŗtē vā patyau sagrahaṇadharmēṇa gŗhītā kāmacāraṃ pravartatē. ētāḥ ṣaḍ rūpājīvāyāmēvāntabhrvantīti vēśyāviśēṣā iti vēśēna saṃpadyantē.. 50.6.6.. Jaymaṅgalā

 

  • Elaborate Translation and Scholarly Interpretation of Kāmasūtra 50.6.6 (as explained in Jayamaṅgalā Commentary)

The following verse from the Kāmasūtra provides a detailed classification of different categories of women engaged in professional relationships based on their social and economic roles. The Jayamaṅgalā commentary further elaborates on their distinct characteristics and the societal perception associated with them.

Verse Translation:

"Kumbhadāsī, paricārikā, kulaṭā, svairiṇī, naṭī, śilpakārikā, prakāśasvinaṣṭā, rūpājīvā, and gaṇikā—these are the specific types of women classified under the broader category of vēśyās (courtesans or women engaged in particular professions related to beauty and entertainment)."

Detailed Explanation of Terms and Categories:

1.       Kumbhadāsī (कुम्भदासी)

    • The word "Kumbha" signifies a pot or vessel, and "Dāsī" refers to a female servant.
    • According to Jayamaṅgalā, the term denotes a low-status female worker involved in menial tasks, often associated with domestic or ritual service.
    • The commentary states:

Kumbhagrahaṇaṃ nikṛṣṭakarmopalaṇam — the association with "Kumbha" signifies engagement in the lowest forms of labor.

    • This suggests that a Kumbhadāsī could be a woman engaged in household chores, water-carrying, or other physical labor, placing her at the lowest tier of the social hierarchy.

 

2.       Paricārikā (परिचारिका)

    • This term refers to a woman who serves her master or employer with devotion.
    • The Upaniṣads mention "Paricārikās" as women who follow and assist sages or noblemen, and they were often employed in royal households or temples as attendants.
    • The commentary states:

Tāsva aupaniṣadikē vidhi valyati — they are mentioned in sacred texts as attendants who serve in regulated environments such as palaces or ashrams.

    • They were not necessarily courtesans but were skilled in hospitality and service.

 

3.       Kulaṭā (कुलटा)

    • A Kulaṭā is a woman who, out of fear of her husband, secretly engages in extramarital relations while still remaining within the confines of her household.
    • The Jayamaṅgalā commentary explains:

Kulaṭā yā patibhayād gṛhāntaraṃ gatvā pracchannam anyena saṃprayujyate — She is a woman who, fearing her husband, secretly meets another man inside her home or another secluded place.

    • Unlike an openly promiscuous woman, a Kulaṭā maintains the outward appearance of marital fidelity while engaging in clandestine affairs.

 

4.       Svairiṇī (स्वैरिणी)

    • This term refers to a woman who disregards her husband's authority and openly engages in relationships with other men.
    • The commentary states:

Svairiṇī yā pati tiraskṛtya svagṛhe'snyagṛhe vā saṃprayujyate — She either abandons her husband’s authority or lives independently, engaging in relationships either within her own house or elsewhere.

    • Unlike the Kulaṭā, she does not conceal her actions but instead exercises autonomy over her relationships.

 

5.       Naṭī (नटी)

    • This term refers to a female dancer or actress who performs in public theaters.
    • The Nāṭyaśāstra categorizes Naṭīs as highly skilled in expressive arts, storytelling, and dance.
    • The commentary simply defines her as:

Naṭī raṅgayoṣit — a woman of the stage, a performer in public entertainment.

    • Such women were often associated with both artistic and social functions, sometimes also engaging in high-status companionship.

 

6.       Śilpakārikā (शिल्पकारिका)

    • The term "Śilpakārikā" denotes a woman associated with craftsmen, weavers, or artisans.
    • The Jayamaṅgalā commentary mentions:

Śilpakārikā rajakatantuvāyādibhāryā — she is the wife of craftsmen such as weavers, dyers, or sculptors.

    • While engaged in manual labor, these women often had economic independence, distinguishing them from servants or entertainers.

 

7.       Prakāśasvinaṣṭā (प्रकाशस्विनष्टा)

    • This term describes a woman who, upon the death of her husband, engages in relationships freely.
    • The commentary states:

Prakāśasvinaṣṭā yā jīvati mṛte vā patyau sagrahaṇadharmeṇa gṛhītā kāmacāraṃ pravartate — she is a widow or a woman who has lost her husband and chooses to engage in romantic or sexual relationships openly.

    • This category includes women who defied traditional widowhood norms and took agency over their lives.

 

8.       Rūpājīvā (रूपाजीवा)

    • The term means "one who earns through her beauty."
    • According to Jayamaṅgalā, this includes:

Rūpājīvāyām evāntabhrvantīti — women who are financially dependent on their physical beauty, possibly as courtesans, performers, or companions.

9.       Gaṇikā (गणिका)

    • A Gaṇikā was a highly respected courtesan, often trained in fine arts, music, dance, and conversation.
    • The Nāṭyaśāstra and Arthaśāstra describe Gaṇikās as social elites, often linked to royal courts and wealthy patrons.
    • The commentary suggests that among all categories, the Gaṇikā was the most distinguished in terms of cultural and artistic refinement.

Conclusion: The Classification of Vēśyās (Courtesans and Professional Women)

The text ultimately classifies these women under "Vēśyāviśēṣāḥ", meaning "distinct types of courtesans or professional women."

  • Some, like Paricārikās and Śilpakārikās, were primarily service providers.
  • Others, like Naṭīs and Gaṇikās, were artists and entertainers.
  • Certain categories, like Kulaṭās and Svairiṇīs, were identified based on their relationships with men.
  • The Rūpājīvās and Prakāśasvinaṣṭās lived by their own means, often outside traditional marital or domestic roles.

The Kāmasūtra and its commentary in Jayamaṅgalā provide a nuanced view of women’s roles in society, going beyond moralistic classifications to acknowledge the diverse ways in which women participated in social and economic life.

  • Another theory of vēśyā:

Trividhā vēśyā – ēkaparigrahā anēkaparigrahā aparigrahā  cēti. Tatra pūrvasyā lābha uktaḥ. Dvitīyāyā vaļyati. Tŗtīyāyā vinā parigrahamanēkasmāllabhamānāyā lābhaviśēṣā ucyantē.0.6.5.. Jayamaṃgalā

 

Dēvakulataḍāgāmāṇaḥ karṇam, sthalīnāmagnicainpānāḥ nibandhanam, gosahasrāṇāḥ brāhmaṇē dānam, dēvatānāḥ pūjopahārapravartanam, tadvyayasahiṣṇorvā dhanasya parigrahaṇamityuttamagaṇikānāḥ lābhātiśayaṃ..28.6.5.. Kāmasūtram

 

  Translation and Interpretation of the Two Verses

The following two verses, one from Jayamaṅgalā and the other from Kāmasūtra, offer an intricate classification of courtesans (vēśyās) and an explanation of their means of wealth accumulation. These texts provide insight into the economic and social frameworks within which courtesans operated in ancient Indian society.

1. Classification of Vēśyās (Courtesans) – Jayamaṅgalā 0.6.5

Verse Translation:

"There are three types of courtesans (vēśyās): (1) those that have a single patron (ēkaparigrahā), (2) those who have multiple patrons (anēkaparigrahā), and (3) those who remain unattached (aparigrahā). Among these, the first type (ēkaparigrahā) receives stable financial benefits from a single association. The second type (anēkaparigrahā) derives her wealth from multiple benefactors. The third type (aparigrahā), despite lacking exclusive attachment to any particular patron, gains exceptional wealth by receiving gifts from multiple sources without any obligation of loyalty to a single benefactor."

Scholarly Interpretation:

The Jayamaṅgalā commentary provides a hierarchical classification of courtesans based on their economic and social relationships:

  1. Ekaparigrahā (एकपरिग्रहा) – The Exclusive Courtesan:
    • This category includes women who commit themselves to a single patron, often a wealthy nobleman or royal figure.
    • Such an arrangement ensured financial security and a stable lifestyle, similar to concubinage in other cultures.
    • The text states, “pūrvasyā lābha uktaḥ”, meaning her financial benefits are assured by virtue of exclusivity.
  2. Anēkaparigrahā (अनेकपरिग्रहा) – The Courtesan with Multiple Patrons:
    • These women engaged with several benefactors, increasing their material gains through multiple sources.
    • The Jayamaṅgalā commentary suggests that this category was highly sought after, as she was not bound by loyalty to any single individual and could exercise agency in choosing or rejecting patrons.
    • The phrase “dvitīyāyā vaļyati” implies that the second type was considered more financially advantageous than the first.
  3. Aparigrahā (अपरिग्रहा) – The Unattached Courtesan:
    • Unlike the first two, this courtesan did not confine herself to any particular patron(s).
    • She accumulated wealth without forming any attachment or obligation to those who provided for her.
    • The text states, “vinā parigraham anēkasmāllabhamānāyā lābhaviśēṣā ucyantē”, which means that despite lacking a fixed patron, she amassed considerable wealth through diverse sources.
    • This category suggests the highest degree of economic independence, enabling the courtesan to establish her own financial and social standing.

This classification reveals that the ancient system of courtesanship was not solely defined by sexuality or servitude but was instead deeply tied to economic strategy and social negotiation.

2. Wealth and Status of Elite Courtesans – Kāmasūtra 28.6.5

Verse Translation:

"For elite courtesans (uttamagaṇikāḥ), sources of immense wealth include: donations received from temple precincts and sacred ponds, lavish ornaments gifted by affluent patrons, land grants, offerings of food and ritual oblations made in their honor, large donations of cows to Brahmins, and the facilitation of grand religious ceremonies in devotion to the deities. Their wealth is further enhanced by accepting financial endowments from benefactors who can sustain such expenditures."

 

Scholarly Interpretation:

This verse from the Kāmasūtra elucidates how high-ranking courtesans (uttamagaṇikāḥ) accrued and maintained substantial wealth, often surpassing that of noble families. The wealth sources mentioned here indicate the significant socio-religious and economic standing of such courtesans in ancient Indian society.

  1. Dēvakulataḍāgāmāṇaḥ karṇam (देवकुलतडागामाणः कर्णम्) – Offerings from Temples and Sacred Ponds:
    • Courtesans had deep associations with temples, often dedicating part of their earnings to religious institutions.
    • In return, wealthy donors, temple authorities, and devotees would bestow significant gifts upon them.
    • Many temple-dancers (Dēvadāsīs) were beneficiaries of land grants and financial endowments given for temple maintenance.
  2. Sthalīnām agnicainpānāḥ nibandhanam (स्थलीनामग्निचैनपानाः निबन्धनम्) – Land Endowments and Ritual Feasts:
    • The verse suggests that elite courtesans often received land ownership or grants, further securing their economic power.
    • Rituals in which fire sacrifices and feasts were organized (possibly as acts of merit by kings or patrons) also contributed to their income.
  3. Gosahasrāṇāṃ brāhmaṇē dānam (गो सहस्राणां ब्राह्मणे दानम्) – Donations of Thousands of Cows to Brahmins:
    • Courtesans were often part of philanthropic and religious activities, contributing to or benefiting from large-scale Brahmanical endowments.
    • They could either receive such donations themselves or act as intermediaries in Brahmanical rituals.
  4. Dēvatānāṃ pūjopahārapravartanam (देवतानां पूजोपहारप्रवर्तनम्) – Orchestrating Grand Religious Offerings:
    • The text implies that courtesans were actively engaged in organizing and financing temple rituals, thereby strengthening their prestige in religious circles.
    • Some elite courtesans even commissioned temple constructions and had murti (deity idols) consecrated in their name.
  5. Tadvyayasahiṣṇorvā dhanasya parigrahaṇam (तद्व्ययसहिष्णोर्वा धनस्य परिग्रहणम्) – Accepting Wealth from Generous Benefactors:
    • The final line emphasizes the patronage courtesans received from the wealthiest patrons of society, including kings, merchants, and landowners.
    • They were often gifted gold, jewelry, expensive textiles, and even palatial homes, ensuring their financial autonomy.

This passage demonstrates that the role of a courtesan extended far beyond mere entertainment. The elite Gaṇikās, through their vast networks of influence, were deeply intertwined with temple economics, religious patronage, and royal circles, making them some of the most powerful women of their time.

Conclusion: The Socio-Economic Power of Courtesans in Ancient India

  • The Jayamaṅgalā verse (0.6.5) categorizes courtesans based on their financial dependencies, revealing a spectrum of economic strategies, ranging from exclusive patronage to complete independence.
  • The Kāmasūtra verse (28.6.5) illustrates how elite courtesans (uttamagaṇikās) amassed significant wealth and influence, often surpassing that of aristocratic women.
  • These texts challenge the modern misconception that courtesans were merely entertainers; rather, they were financially astute individuals who played critical roles in temple patronage, political diplomacy, and cultural preservation.

Thus, the ancient Indian tradition of courtesanship was not solely linked to sexuality but was an intricate system of power, economics, and social mobility.

 

 

 

 


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